“Words Can Hurt You!”

Have you ever been hurt by someone’s words? Words can’t hurt is a controversial statement. Being criticized for your intelligence, race or even where you live, can hurt you physically or emotionally. When I was little, people would tell me I was fat and ugly. I often felt like a symbol (word, sound or visual device that represents an object, sound, concept, or experience) trapped around referent (thing that a symbol represents). I didn’t feel welcome around a certain group of kids. However, my teachers and family would tell me the exact opposite and say words cannot hurt me, but in reality, they did.I thought (mental process of creating an image, sound, concept, or experience triggered by a referent or symbol) everyday would be a better day at school because some people would be positive towards me, but before I changed my lifestyle it was wishful thinking. Going to school every day was fun most of the time until someone had to say something cruel. I disagree wit h the statement words can’t hurt, because they do. Why do people say words don’t hurt, and how exactly are people hurt by those negative remarks? If words don’t hurt, then why do African-Americans get mad when called â€Å"negro†?All through middle school, I was called â€Å"rat boy† for some odd reason. One person told me it didn’t matter because I didn’t have to listen to them. It was hard to do this through my middle school life. It aggravated me and I wanted to move away and go into a deep state of isolation. Finally in eighth grade, most of my peers saw that it made me angry and they quit. It doesn’t matter the type of person you are, I was a three sport athlete that had good grades and still got made fun of. Over the years, my peers have changed. I got into my college classes and my life became pleasant once again.I met a guy at my best friend’s house that thought I was funny and we connected. Being African America n, he is known as a â€Å"Negro† and knew how I felt when I was called â€Å"rat boy†. I grew up being told negative thoughts about my size. This guy not only makes me feel good about myself on the outside, but has helped me find the little girl who was still lost inside a body full of happiness. I would use profanity (words considered obscene, blasphemous, irreverent, rude, or insensitive) to get other's attention, and not realize it how uglier I sounded.I did it to try and fit in and only made it worse. Since words can hurt people, who started the whole false idea about how they don’t hurt? Words can upset you physically or emotionally or you’ll never forget what the bully said to you. I remember back when I was in first grade, one of the other kids at recess called me small fry; he was older than me and thus bigger. I was angry towards him that whole school year, and it still makes me mad when people call me small fry or short.I was around seven when i t happened, I’m twenty-one now, and I still get disgusted by that kid. In my case I was injured emotionally and I never forgot how much it hurt me. Since then my size has changed, but it is very unbalanced. People now are different and don’t vilify me anymore. All through my education at public schools, I have been ridiculed about my size. Being a junior in college and five foot seven inches, I’m considered average. This time in life I can honestly say, I haven’t encountered bullies near as much.It may have been because I took what was being thrown in my face and changed myself. I try to have a healthier lifestyle, by eating healthier and exercising more frequently. Out of all the names I was called, the two previously mentioned made me upset the most. I’m writing about this to show that I have struggled with my self-esteem because of the names I was labeled. People need to change in order for the remarks to stop completely. To conclude this writin g assignment, I myself disagree with words can’t hurt you because in truth they do. â€Å"Words Can Hurt You!† Have you ever been hurt by someone’s words? Words can’t hurt is a controversial statement. Being criticized for your intelligence, race or even where you live, can hurt you physically or emotionally. When I was little, people would tell me I was fat and ugly. I often felt like a symbol (word, sound or visual device that represents an object, sound, concept, or experience) trapped around referent (thing that a symbol represents). I didn’t feel welcome around a certain group of kids. However, my teachers and family would tell me the exact opposite and say words cannot hurt me, but in reality, they did.I thought (mental process of creating an image, sound, concept, or experience triggered by a referent or symbol) everyday would be a better day at school because some people would be positive towards me, but before I changed my lifestyle it was wishful thinking. Going to school every day was fun most of the time until someone had to say something cruel. I disagree wit h the statement words can’t hurt, because they do. Why do people say words don’t hurt, and how exactly are people hurt by those negative remarks? If words don’t hurt, then why do African-Americans get mad when called â€Å"negro†?All through middle school, I was called â€Å"rat boy† for some odd reason. One person told me it didn’t matter because I didn’t have to listen to them. It was hard to do this through my middle school life. It aggravated me and I wanted to move away and go into a deep state of isolation. Finally in eighth grade, most of my peers saw that it made me angry and they quit. It doesn’t matter the type of person you are, I was a three sport athlete that had good grades and still got made fun of. Over the years, my peers have changed. I got into my college classes and my life became pleasant once again.I met a guy at my best friend’s house that thought I was funny and we connected. Being African America n, he is known as a â€Å"Negro† and knew how I felt when I was called â€Å"rat boy†. I grew up being told negative thoughts about my size. This guy not only makes me feel good about myself on the outside, but has helped me find the little girl who was still lost inside a body full of happiness. I would use profanity (words considered obscene, blasphemous, irreverent, rude, or insensitive) to get other's attention, and not realize it how uglier I sounded.I did it to try and fit in and only made it worse. Since words can hurt people, who started the whole false idea about how they don’t hurt? Words can upset you physically or emotionally or you’ll never forget what the bully said to you. I remember back when I was in first grade, one of the other kids at recess called me small fry; he was older than me and thus bigger. I was angry towards him that whole school year, and it still makes me mad when people call me small fry or short.I was around seven when i t happened, I’m twenty-one now, and I still get disgusted by that kid. In my case I was injured emotionally and I never forgot how much it hurt me. Since then my size has changed, but it is very unbalanced. People now are different and don’t vilify me anymore. All through my education at public schools, I have been ridiculed about my size. Being a junior in college and five foot seven inches, I’m considered average. This time in life I can honestly say, I haven’t encountered bullies near as much.It may have been because I took what was being thrown in my face and changed myself. I try to have a healthier lifestyle, by eating healthier and exercising more frequently. Out of all the names I was called, the two previously mentioned made me upset the most. I’m writing about this to show that I have struggled with my self-esteem because of the names I was labeled. People need to change in order for the remarks to stop completely. To conclude this writin g assignment, I myself disagree with words can’t hurt you because in truth they do.

Finding Nemo: Overcoming Fear and the Hero’s Journey

In this movie, Marlin, the hero, must find and rescue his son, Memo, who has been captured by divers. Although Marlin is afraid he wills himself to Journey to the deepest, darkest, most dangerous areas of the ocean to find Memo. In Finding Memo, through three critical stages of Joseph Campbell monthly, Marlin discovers that he must overcome his fears in order to save his son. In the â€Å"Ordinary World† stage of the hero's Journey, Marlin expresses inordinate fear towards the ocean and taking risks.While preparing for the first day of school in is anemone, Marlin inquires, â€Å"What's the one thing we have to remember about the ocean? † â€Å"It's not safe,† replied Memo with a heavy sigh. In this ordinary world, the fear that Marlin will conquer is introduced with his parenting. Marlin teaches Memo to fear because of his horrendous past experiences. While Marlin is cultivated and cautious, Memo, on the other hand, is innocuous and imprudent. Because of this, M emo's father is set on sheltering Memo from the outside world. At this point in the journey, Marlin has extreme anxieties that are yet to be conquered.Additionally, Marlin begins to conquer his fear of the â€Å"big blue† and gambling with life as he enters the â€Å"Crossing the Threshold† stage of Campbell monthly. When Memo ventures out into open water to touch â€Å"the butt† (boat), he is nabbed by divers, and Marlin rushes to action and chases the boat. â€Å"l have to find the boat! † he exclaimed as he raced through the violent water. It is at this point that Marlin realizes that fear fades when there is danger at hand. For example, it only takes a split second for Marlin to think before plunging into the thing that has frightened him for years.He takes the first step to vanquishing the terror that controls his life due to the possible death of his son. Memo's capture empowers Marlin to venture on a search and rescue mission, regardless of the per il he is bound to face. During the second critical stage, Marlin begins to apprehend why and how he must stand in the face of danger to surmount his fears. Moreover, during the â€Å"Road Back† stage of the hero's Journey, Marlin releases all of his fear and discovers that some chances are worth taking. Marlin comes to this realization when Dory and several other fish are engaged within a fishing net, andMemo uses his newly found knowledge to hatch a plan to help them elude their cruel fates. â€Å"l can do this,† pleads Memo. Marlin replies with a look of pride and understanding, mire's right. I know you can. † Marlin finally understands that keeping Memo from attempting anything outside of the box because of his own fear. Once he sees that Memo's method worked, he realizes that he does not have to fear for Memo as much as he previously thought. By giving Memo permission to consummate his plan, Marlin quells his fear of trying new things and finally learns to tr ust his son.Because of this close encounter with danger and death, Marlin is able to rid himself of the fear that has controlled him ever since the birth of his son. In the last critical stage of Marlin's Journey, he pulls together all of the erudition he has gathered from his quest to realizes that his fear can be overcame with action. Three critical stages of Joseph Campbell are exemplified as Marlin manumits his son from the clutches of his captors while conquering his fears. From the hero's journey in Finding Memo, one can learn that no matter the size or rationality of the fear, it can be overcome if it is faced head on.

HRD: Different Perspectives, Aims, and Objectives

Different paradigms present different perspectives of HARD (Human Resource Development) in terms of its aims and objectives. Consequently, it important to understand the different paradigms since each paradigm will have different approaches while solving HARD related problems. Experts advise that individuals build their personal beliefs regarding which paradigm suits his or her practice.In our context, It is best to divide HARD into two different paradigms, the performance, and the learning paradigm since they are definite. Moreover, the learning paradigm and the performance paradigm overlook most of the HARD practice as well as the thinking. The learning paradigm Is especially predominant In HARD practice In the United States of America. The learning paradigm and the performance paradigm are very dissimilar in many aspects. For instance, as the learning paradigm focuses on individual learning the performance paradigm focuses on the individual performance improvement.Learning paradig m of HARD is the field of study and practices that nature a long- term work-related learning capacity in an organization at all levels I. . Individual, organizational, and group levels. The performance paradigm of HARD is the art of realizing units of mission-related outputs. In addition, performance can be an organized system meant to accomplish a purpose or a mission. Though the two paradigms are diverse, they both agree on some aspects, for Instance they both agree that Improvement of organizations Is through human expertise.Different experts and philosophers hold different perspectives on the performance aspect. Performance can be as a natural outcome of humans' actively, reference is an important input in economic activities, or performance can also be a tool of oppression. There are different views held regarding then learning paradigm. Learning is a humanistic Endeavor, as it enhances the potential of human beings. Learning can also end up being an oppressive tool, for instan ce in the context of communism where learning is used to control the society.Learning is an instrument for the transmission of information needed by individuals. Nevertheless, it would be ignorant to draw that the two paradigms cannot converge since HARD operates best under Integration of the two. Chapter 8 Primary, the chapter Is about the theories on performance. Performance theory varies In comparison to the learning theory since It concentrates on teams, processes, organizational systems, and Individuals. Organizational effectiveness Is the mall precursor to performance and can be in different models.It can be a goal model, constituencies model. HARD is not the only discipline interested in performance and consequently analyzing HARD is normally on a basis on the different perspectives of performances. There are other different perspectives such as performance is a ultrasonically phenomenon. Performance models are of wide ranges of disciplines such as sociology, ethics, quality, psychology, and etcetera. Individual level performance models were because of HARD since; HARD has its foundation on individual learning.The models are the human performance technology and they try to define the common individual performance and the factors influencing individual performance. The financial performance entails the financial benefits of the HARD programs. Different factors influence the HARD profession such as the value-laden myths. Some of the myths are that the cost of HARD is high, it is impossible to quantify the benefits of HARD or that giving organizations the HARD they want is appropriate.Breaches enterprise model and Rumbles model provide integrated framework to achieve competitive advantage. Other common representative models are the John Campbell taxonomy and Thomas Gilbert's human performance engineering model. The integration of the performance models bring about new perspectives to HARD research, practice, and thinking. Chapter 9 This chapter focuses on the different perspectives of learning and the different preventative theories on learning in HARD.Learning is at the core of HARD and all debates ever carried out suggest that HARD embrace learning. The basic theories are six and include humanism, constructivism, holistic learning, social learning, behaviorism, and cognitive. These theories can apply in all the learning settings as well as for all age groups. Learning models can be at individual levels and at organizational levels. In the recent past, androgyny has been a theory of adult learning, a set of assumptions regarding adult learners, and a method of adult education.At individual levels is the androgyny that is a principal adult learning in HARD. On an adult learning perspective, it is a genuine trial to focus on the adult learner. Ontological model avails core standards of important and key hypotheses on adult learners. Another king of learning that is increasingly gaining attention is the transformational learning. This kind of learning is deep and requires the learner to challenge the fundamental assumptions and the mental schema they hold regarding the world.In relation to mental schema are restructuring, accretion, and tuning here accretion and tuning entails no change or incremental changes in an individual's schemata and restructuring involves creating a new schema. Organizational learning is learning that occurs at system level and not at individual levels. The main feature differentiating individual and organizational learning is that individual learning makes their mental models precise. HARD develops the knowledge for organizations to be competitive in the economy. Swanson. A, Hilton. F, Hilton, E. Foundations of Human Resource Development. London: Barrett-Koehler Publishers, 2001.

The Arabidopsis Myb Genes MYR1 and MYR2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Arabidopsis Myb Genes MYR1 and MYR2 - Essay Example Arabidopsis is a long day plant that flowers earlier than other plants in long day conditions than in short day conditions. In LD conditions flowering is affected by an increase in expression of the flowering locus T (FT). This gene expression is controlled by CONSTANS (CO). Under low light intensity, homozygous myr1 and myr2 mutants will flower and show an increase in petiole length, apical dominance and leaf angle. Analysis on the genetics of the mutants point out that myr1 and myr 2 phenotype need GA biosynthesis. In determination of the functions of MYR1 and MYR2 roles in plant development and growth two independent T-DNA alleles for every gene. The T- DNA were evaluated and discovered that they eliminated full length expression of MYR1 and MYR2 in plants homozygous to every mutation. The homozygous myr1 and myr2 mutants happened to be identical to WT plants in relation to their leaf color, plant size and morphology. In SD conditions plants that had any of these alleles had an ea rly flowering and this generally indicates that myr1 and myr2 had suppressive effects on flowering. Additionally, flowering locust T was also needed by the Myr1 and Myr2 phenotype responsible for flowering and these mutants also demonstrated an interface with phyB-9 mutant. When Myr1 and Myr2 are over expressed, GA deficiency symptoms are shown which are then eliminated by use of gibberellic acid (GA1). When Myr1 and Myr2 were lost, there was a double boost in GA20ox2 expression and GA1 levels increased by 30%. Myr2 over expression caused a three time GA20ox2 decrease and 50% reduction in GA1 levels. Therefore, it can be concluded that Myr1 and Myr2 ability to limit flowering and elongation of organs is slightly because of their destructive consequence on the bioactive GA levels. In this case, it is possible that the increase in expression for the GA negative regulators showed the property of having a shade avoidance phenotype. The role of MYR1 and MYR2 of affecting the GA2O0x2 expr ession could be the determinant for observed phenotypes and it is in the same line with research on GA2O0x2 genes that indicate their importance in regulating growth and fertility of the Arabidopsis plant. This essay is based on a previous research done by several researchers. It will describe the result, outline the conclusion and give an insight on future work based on this research. In the result that has indicated that MYR1 and MYR2 have a role in plant growth and development, it is indicated that as light intensity became high, the phenotype became weak and double mutants of myr1 and myr2 produced fewer than WT, rosette leaves. In relation, vegetative growth and flowering time characteristic of the myr1 and myr2 mutants exhibited a similarity with phyB mutants. When MYR1 and MYR2 are paralogous and the genes are co-expressed, lengthening of the vegetative period in SD conditions showed a weakening in the phenotype responsible for early flowering. Myr1 and myr2 that were early f lowering under a LD environment was connected with more features that were not present in single mutants. They a longer petiole, lengthy hypocotyls and the leaves were more vertically oriented with a peak in apical dominance. This features show that the early flowering phenotype had been strengthened and that both myr1 and myr2 double mutants expressed the presence of MYR1 and MYR2 redundancy property which was not shown in the single mutant’s myr1 and myr2. In addition it was discovered that MYR1 and M

Legacy of Wars Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Legacy of Wars - Essay Example The treaty of Versailles is one of the factors that took place in 1919 was one of the legendary factors for the continuation of the First World War. This treaty was a meeting to discuss the various ways in which Germany was to pay for the damages it had done during the First World War. The main terms of the treaty were that Germany was the causes of the First World War because it gave Germany harsh conditions and took away its territorial land, making the Germans unhappy about it. They decided to fight back in order to prove they are still a super power, and this came out during the second world war. Wells (2011 P. 82) states that the reality of the situation was that no German state would be able to accept the treaty in the long term. There were various sanctions that were passed by the League of Nations, but they were not effective. The League of Nations could only impose economic sanctions, which were not effective, For instance, the Locarno Conference was a failed peace treaty be tween Germany and France that failed after Germany invaded France the only way to solve the conflicts, therefore, war to engage into a war, hence the continuation of the First World War. Adolf Hitler wanted Germany to dominate the whole world, and did this by tying to bring all the central European countries together. Hitler wanted Germany to grow and implemented this by annexing Poland. ... With these ambitions, Hitler caused problems to various countries making them resolve to war that was similar or more complicated than the First World War. The failure of America and Britain to stop Hitler during the time he was coming up also made the occurrence of the Second World War because Hitler wanted to oppose the sanctions made to the Germans by the other super powers. Orr (2005), states that the war to end all wars would serve as a prologue to the bigger war to come. Most European countries experienced tension when they saw the various actions that Adolf Hitler was doing. They decided to increase more armies and prepare for a war so that they would not have to suffer the consequences similar to what was experienced during the First World War. The best option that was to be adopted was the use of force in order to prevent themselves from the problems that were caused by the Germans, and this led to the continuation of the First World War. Political, economic and technologica l consequences of the Second World War The Second World War had severe consequences on most of the European countries in terms of its politics, the overall economy and advancement in technology. Towards the end, of the war, Germany became divided into four various zones by the victorious powers while they were waiting for a political settlement that was permanent. Japan ended up in ruins following the Second World War, and several military leaders in that country were tried and convicted of causing war crimes. However, the Emperor was allowed to maintain his position, and the entire Japs came into a temporary military rule by United States. England had experience devastating bombings from the Germans thereby making its economy go down; hence, it had to

Real estate national overview Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Real estate national overview - Essay Example In addition to, France hosts a number of NATO agencies, which play a significant role in the development of the group. France is an active part of the modernization process of NATO military (Milligan, 14). The state of the national economy of France is that it is stagnating. It is evident through growth, unemployment, and national debt. According to statistics, the economy of France will hit the European Union budget shortage of 2007 (Murphy, 8). The French believes that an intervention can bring the situation under control. The French president believes that an expansive fiscal policy is essential in dealing with the French economy. France has a GDP of $35700 in comparison to other nations in the region (Boyer, Berend & Haba, 19). The economy of France has expanded its horizons when relating various sectors of the economy. The central government has privatized most large companies in France to allow other stakeholders help the nation to develop. On the contrary, the government maintains to play a significant role in some sectors of the economy. The government manages to hold a majority of the shares in industries such power, transport and defense system. France has at least 82 million foreign tourists annually, and it is the most visited country in the world. France leaders are capitalists, and they have maintained a social equity through laws and policies. The unemployment rate in 2008 rose from 7.8% to 10.8% in 2013(Boyer, Berend & Haba, 19). Despite the slow rate of growth in France, the borrowing rate reduced significantly and attracted investors to the country. The demand for housing in France rose due to the massive demand for houses. The increase in interest rates increased the demand for houses in the nation. The availability of long mortgages has encouraged the demand for houses in France. The financial crisis caused a drop in housing projects in France. In comparisons with other countries, there are many similarities when it

How to use a Rubber in Mobile Phones Case Study

How to use a Rubber in Mobile Phones - Case Study Example These devices represent one of the most advanced (sophisticated) technologies ever developed by human beings (Karim 2010). Through them people can communicate with each other, surf on the internet, listen to music, watch videos, and play games among other functionalities. The various functionalities of mobile phones are normally enhanced by design and use of a variety of components in their manufacture. In this regard, mobile phones normally consist of several components, and these components are made from a wide variety of materials (Chan 2007). The materials from which mobile phones components are made include plastics, rubber, magnets, paper and metals among others. This paper, therefore, aims at investigating how rubber is currently used in the design and manufacture of mobile phones. The paper also aims at investigating the alternative areas in mobile phone design and construction that rubber can be used. Main parts of mobile phone and their use The main components of mobile pho nes are: battery, SIM card, circuit board, keyboard, speaker and microphone, antenna, software, and Liquid Crystal Display screen (commonly abbreviated as LCD screen) among others (Mueller 2013). Circuit board Circuit board is amongst the most important components of a mobile phone. ... The chips on the circuit board can perform numerous calculations (always millions of calculations) in a single second. The circuit board chips’ calculations are normally performed to decompress or compress voice stream (Harris 2006). Other than chips, another component that is available in the mobile phone circuit board is digital signal processor (commonly abbreviated as DSP) (Mueller 2013). This component is designed to perform operations related to manipulation of digital signals at greater speeds in a single second. Another component that is available in mobile phone circuit board is micro-processor. The microprocessor is responsible for three main functions; these functions are stated below: i. Coordination of all the functions of the mobile phone circuit board. ii. Processes commands as well as control signals related to connecting mobile phone to base station (also known as the cell phone tower). iii. Handles as well as coordinates the functions of display and keyboard. (Mueller 2013) Other components that are associated with mobile phone circuit board are ROM (the read only memory) and chips associated with flash memory. These components are responsible for the running and storage of the mobile phone’s operating system and software applications (Mueller 2013). Mobile phone’s speaker and Microphone Other than the circuit board, speakers and microphones are other important components of mobile phones. It is through the speakers as well as the microphones that communications between individuals are made possible (Harris 2006). Mobile phone microphone is responsible for converting the sound signals to electrical signals. The

Business entity part 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Business entity part 2 - Essay Example Realistic goal means that set objectives are within reach and can be achievable. Cash increase as a goal that can be achieved by starting a saving plan, thus identifying the financial capability of the corporation. Revenue growth is a financial goal necessary for a corporation’s growth (Krus, 2005). The long term goal means steady elevation of sales that lead to income increase. This can be achieved by setting aside crisis funds. This ensures the corporation has a back up and encounters no lose in the income. This enhances a corporation’s income which results to revenue growth that is fundamental in the financial unit. Returns increase is a long term financial goal that a corporation can set. Return increase means profit increase in a corporation. The returns increase objective should be specific, which implies that the corporation should put precise figures in an orderly manner. (Krus, 2005). The goal should be achievable without the corporation being under pressure to enable it fulfil the goal. This goal can be achieved by creating a budget that will identify credits and

Research paper SarbanesOxley Act of 2002 and DoddFrank law on banking Essay

Research paper SarbanesOxley Act of 2002 and DoddFrank law on banking industry - Essay Example It encouraged full disclosure of information to enable citizens to evaluate the worth of the firm before investing in it. The Dodd-Frank law also seeks to tighten regulation on credit rating agencies (Simon, 1989). Whether this was achieved or not has been a subject of debate around many corners. To assess the effects of the legislation, this paper will look at the wealth effects that surround the passage of the Act. The investors and the analysts will assess the benefits that this act has brought to their wealth status and whether or not it brought a significant difference since its enacting. If they determine that there are changes due to act and that the act is having positive effects in the investment business then they will assess it positively if otherwise they will give it a negative assessment. However, for the purposes of research, this paper will assume that the share prices of the firms that were expected to incur greater costs during compliance were negatively affected by the Act. This is because their share prices fell and it has been a challenge to bring them up. The paper will assume this position following the hype that followed the enactment of the Act especially in the media. The media popularized the negative effects of this legislation to the share prices of firms (Bloomfield, 2005). To assess the effects of this legislation, the paper will consider several studies that focus on the financial impacts brought about by disclosure of financial information then engage in an independent discussion on the same (DeFond, 2004). Previous studies indicate that financial disclosure by firms is very important to the shareholders. The shareholders need this kind of information in order to make decisions on which stocks they would invest in. It also helps the analyst by giving them the facts they can use in advising their clients. Being open to the public also helps the firm well manage its expectations. However, how the disclosure impacts on the

E-trading Case Essay Example for Free

E-trading Case Essay Introduction Perhaps nowhere else is the impact of the Internet felt as much as in the service sector. The Internet has opened new channels for service delivery, shortened turnaround limes and offered unprecedented convenience to consumers. The financial services have leveraged the Internet and exploited its many benefits. E-trading is the financial service most amenable to E-enablement. It has already witnessed a meteoric growth in the United States and is staging a similar show in other economies.   E-trading offers tremendous benefits to the investors and will probably expand the market itself. This paper discusses issues of E-trading, its evolution and key characteristics. Then it examines scope of E-trading, significant players and groups involved in. After that discussion about benefits of E-trading, either for users or for brokers, technology and security issues related to this industry. And finally some insight in future of E-trading is presented. Evolution of the Industry The first ever ECN, Instinet, founded in 1969, was a means for brokerages lo display bid and ask prices for stock in North America and abroad. It was first used by institutions to transact with each other, but today ii also includes a select group of smaller brokerages. However, e-brokerage, or offering Internet transactions to clients, was pioneered in the by E*Trade securities (FreeTrade), one of the firs of all-electronic brokerages, which first started operations and offered online investing services through America Online and CompuServe and launched its own website, www.etrade.com, in 1996. The first E-trade was conducted on E*trade on July 11, 1983 and since that time has changed the way the world invests. Charles Schwab, now the largest in the US with 7 million on-line accounts and $1 trillion under management via the Internet, also launched its online trading venture in 1996. In January 2005, Charles Schwab clients executed an average of 300,000 electronic trades every working day. (www.aboutschwab.com) There are now more than 130 millions on-line brokerage firms in the US (Exhibit 1) offering E-trading services to consumers, who can be physically located anywhere on Earth. Today, about half of transactions made by US retail investors are done through the Internet. In fact, there is a range of websites on which one can not only trade stocks online but also buy and sell futures and options. According to International Data Corp the number of US households using online brokerage to meet their financial needs has grown from the 2000 figure of over 7 million to 19 million in 2004, with over $2.5 trillion of assets managed online. (Tower Group Research) Online brokerage in the US grew out of the discount brokerage industry and has fundamentally changed the retail brokerage industry. Online trading developed as a low-cost self-service approach to equity investing. Rather than paying high commissions that are typical of full service brokerage firms, investors could place trades directly at a fraction of the usual commission costs. In addition, online trading was more efficient and less costly than telephone trading a common channel used by discount firms. As a result, online brokers began competing on cost. (Colkin Cuneo) Exhibit 1 Online commission prices that started at between US$25 and $30 per trade have been cut significantly over the years. Currently, average online commission price per trade hovers around $12-15, and some deep discount firms offer trades as low as $5. A few firms—American Express, Free Trade, Com1 (a subsidiary of AmeriTrade), and most recently, thefinanciatcafe.com—have even introduced free online trading. (thefinancialcafe.com) The online commission pricing battle demonstrates the commoditization of online transactions. Initially, price may have been a differentiating factor, but currently, price alone is not sufficient for attracting and retaining individual investors (excluding the day-trading segment). Online brokerage firms must seek to provide greater services and support to clients. The number of US online brokerage accounts continues to grow consistently. After an initial period of astounding growth, the number of online brokerage accounts is still steadily increasing. (Tower Group Research) E-trading Scope The term E-trading stands for trading in equity or debt instruments on the exchange through an Electronic Communication Network (ECN). Although online trading strictly refers only to the electronic execution of trade, an ecosystem of E-trading has three dimensions: Electronic execution of the trade Payment for the transaction through a payment gateway Transfer of shares in electronic form. There have been three distinct phases of development of E-trading. These are: Phase 1: The open-outcry system with the transactions taking place manually in the ring Phase 2: The electronic system, enabling brokers to place orders online Phase 3: The E-trading system, empowering customers to transact online. The mechanics of the E-trading system begin with the user logging onto the ECN through the Internet. The user then accesses his E-trading account with the help of a password. The user is now connected directly with the exchange and any transactions would be instantaneous and irrevocable. The user also has access to real-time price movements of various scrips and other contextual information to assist him in his decision. An integrated E-trading system consists of not only a transaction enabler but also a payment gateway for funds transfer and a d-mat account for transfer of stocks. Such a service enables smooth, convenient and transparent operations. E-trading model is based on the proposition that a service which does not require sophisticated skills, is standardized, has a wide geographic spread of clients and a high number (statistic) of clients who use the service very frequently (scope) and whose automatable processes account for a high proportion of costs (savings), offers the best potential for E-enablement. Using this framework, it becomes clear which financial services are amenable to E-enablement (Colkin Cuneo): Corporate banking: The corporate banking industry involves understanding client needs, analysis of the project proposal, evaluation of various alternatives and finally recommendation of a suitable alternative. The task involves high-level skills, is not highly standardized and not amenable to automation. The number of clients per entity, i.e. the corporate customers, of a bank is limited, though the geographic spread may be diverse. The frequency of transactions is also limited. Thus, corporate banking does not seem to be amenable to E-enablement. Investment banking: For the reasons cited above, investment banking, like corporate banking, does not appear a suitable subject for E-enablement. Retail banking: The retail banking industry comprising credit-cards, management of savings accounts etc. is characterized by a large number of clients spread geographically utilizing a simple, repeatable and standardized service. For servicing the customer specialized-skills are not required and automatable processes comprise a significant proportion of the overall costs of service. Using the framework, it appears that retail banking would be highly amenable to E-enablement. Stock trading: A stockbroker collates orders from various customers and executes the same through a trading terminal. Customers typically place orders through the telephone and a representative of the broker executes the order on behalf of the client on the trading terminal. The skill-set used by the representative is not highly specialized as the action being considered is only the execution of the order and not client advisory. While other processes such as risk monitoring, exposure monitoring and client monitoring are also involved, they are typically automated for effectiveness. Thus, the broker acts purely as a manual interface between the client and the exchange. The task performed by the broker is simple, standardized and easily repeatable. Given that the frequency of transactions by the customers is at least moderate if not high, there is a significant scope for reduction in overall costs through automation. The geographic span of the clients is also widespread. All these characteristics make trading highly amenable to E-enablement. (Berber) Significant Players and Groups Involved OnlinÐ µ invÐ µsting bÐ µgan in thÐ µ US and is a big businÐ µss thÐ µrÐ µ. In thÐ µ first quartÐ µr of 2004, thÐ µrÐ µ wÐ µrÐ µ approximatÐ µly 25 million onlinÐ µ invÐ µstors with ovÐ µr US $ 4 trillion in assÐ µts. In yÐ µar 2002, 14 million onlinÐ µ invÐ µstors with an assÐ µt basÐ µ of US $ 700 Billion were activÐ µ. ThÐ µ markÐ µt lÐ µadÐ µrs arÐ µ a mixturÐ µ of full sÐ µrvicÐ µ firms (DLJ DirÐ µct, Morgan StanlÐ µy DÐ µan WittÐ µr, DiscovÐ µr), wÐ µll-Ð µstablishÐ µd discount brokÐ µrs (FidÐ µlity and CharlÐ µs Schwab) and nÐ µw on-linÐ µ spÐ µcialist firms (Е*TradÐ µ). MarkÐ µt SharÐ µs, in tÐ µrms of onlinÐ µ trading volumÐ µs, arÐ µ such that just 9 on-linÐ µ brokÐ µrs havÐ µ 86 pÐ µr cÐ µnt of thÐ µ markÐ µt sharÐ µ. Individual InvÐ µstors havÐ µ to opÐ µn an account with a firm bÐ µforÐ µ commÐ µncing trading and thÐ µ minimum account opÐ µning balancÐ µ rangÐ µs from US $ 500 (with Jack WhitÐ µ and Company) to US $ 10,000 (with Wall StrÐ µÃ µt AccÐ µss, IntÐ µrnÐ µt Trading Com and J B Oxford). (Tower Group) AnothÐ µr important fÐ µaturÐ µ that attracts on-linÐ µ invÐ µstors is thÐ µ frÐ µÃ µ rÐ µsÐ µarch providÐ µd by thÐ µ on-linÐ µ firms. PrÐ µviously this was availablÐ µ only to largÐ µ institutional invÐ µstors. In addition to fundamÐ µntal information about stocks, bonds and mutual funds sophisticatÐ µd tools likÐ µ tÐ µchnical analysis rÐ µports and charts arÐ µ also availablÐ µ for frÐ µÃ µ. SomÐ µ of thÐ µsÐ µ arÐ µ also customizablÐ µ, Ð µithÐ µr fully or partly. ThÐ µ problÐ µm for invÐ µstors is onÐ µ of information ovÐ µrload and how to absorb all thÐ µ information providÐ µd as wÐ µll as analyzÐ µ and act upon it. RÐ µcognizing this nÐ µÃ µd somÐ µ firms havÐ µ takÐ µn concrÐ µtÐ µ stÐ µps to summarizÐ µ and focus thÐ µ information to mÐ µÃ µt with individual rÐ µquirÐ µmÐ µnts. PricÐ µ alÐ µrts arÐ µ a standard fÐ µaturÐ µ with most brokÐ µrs. (Berber) ThÐ µ nÐ µw on-linÐ µ brokÐ µrs do not havÐ µ any lÐ µgacy systÐ µms and in spitÐ µ of making hÐ µavy invÐ µstmÐ µnts in tÐ µchnology (which is thÐ µ backbonÐ µ of any on-linÐ µ trading systÐ µm) havÐ µ vÐ µry low transaction costs, typically about lÐ µss than 10% of full sÐ µrvicÐ µ brokÐ µrs cost.   ThÐ µ Ð µxisting discount brokÐ µrs likÐ µ CharlÐ µs Schwab who startÐ µd offÐ µring on-linÐ µ trading did so by Ð µstablishing a sÐ µparatÐ µ division for Е-trading rathÐ µr than risk thÐ µ wholÐ µ organization. ThÐ µ main worry for thÐ µsÐ µ brokÐ µragÐ µs has bÐ µÃ µn thÐ µ rÐ µlations and businÐ µss prospÐ µcts of thÐ µir Ð µxisting salÐ µs forcÐ µ of brokÐ µrs. (www.aboutschwab.com) Benefits of E-trading Switching over to E-trading results in several benefits, both to the user and to the broker. Benefits to Users Lower transaction costs: Typical brokerage-rates in India are in the range 1.0-1.5%, whereas the rates for E-trading are as low as 0.1 %. E-trading brings down costs of not only the execution of the transaction but also the transfer of securities. In physical purchase of securities, the stamp duty rates are 0.5% of the value of the shares. With dematerialization of securities, the stamp duly charges are not applicable, in the US, brokerage costs before E-trading was introduced were as high as 7%, and have now come down to about 1%.(Colkin Cuneo) Transparency: E-trading empowers the customer to transact directly on the stock exchange. It delayers the process thereby improving transparency. The user does not need to rely on the brokers word-of-mouth or transaction slips for confirmation of the price at which his trade was conducted. Convenience: Online trading is available at the click of a button » making it much more convenient for the customer to trade. Also, with limit based orders being allowed, customers can place their orders even during the non-trading hours, which are executed at the earliest trading possibility. Procedural benefits: Unlike the earlier scenario, where the customers had to physically go to the broker to complete the formalities of trade i.e. payment/receipt of shares, involving procedural hassles, under the E-trading paradigm, these procedures are done away with. The entire cycle-of-trade i.e. placing the order, transfer of funds and transfer of securities trade is done electronically. Benefits to Online Brokers Easier risk management: Offline brokers collect margins from their clients and establish limits for trading based on the same. This may result in a situation where the broker would have to collect funds after the execution of the trade, exposing the broker to client credit-risk. However, under the online mechanism, the system would first check the status of funds available with the client in his bank account and only then allow the trade to take place. This reduces the exposure of the broker to client-risk. Greater business potential: The new paradigm of E-trading, which allows simple, convenient and transparent transactions may encourage more participants to trade. It is expected that the introduction of E-trading will expand the market itself resulting in better business for brokers. Lower staff costs: Automation of the processes, resulting in reduced requirement of manpower, offers significant cost-savings to the brokers. Technology and Security Issues Technology companies have developed online transaction processing (OLTP) applications that allow real time transaction execution. An extension of the OLTP transaction is the Straight-through Processing technology that allows an application to directly interface with the central system of any market place, without any manual intervention. Straight-through processing technology permits financial software products to directly interact with the stock exchange system by communicating with the exchange market structures. (odysseytec.com) The cycle of E-trading has to pass through three layers: The Client Interface Layer: the front-end The Middle Layer: risk management systems that access data from banks and depository participants (DP), calculate client exposure at that instant, and give the Go/No go advice to the trade. †¢ The End Layer: the back-end, where the accounting modules, pay in/pay out schedules, etc, operate. From a technical perspective, there are three key success factors for E-trading: Scalability and robustness of the trading system: The fundamental difference between the Internet as a transaction medium and the conventional closed user group network is that the Net is a universal platform providing concurrent access to infinite users at any given point in time. Consequently, it becomes imperative for any Net-based application to have a prove capability for scalability and robustness, which ensures the ability to handle and process requests from multiple users at any given point in time. Bandwidth optimization: The application software should demonstrate intelligence in optimizing the available bandwidth by deploying advanced technologies such as streaming. Integration with third party systems: On the Net, with information feeds available from multiple. points, it is prudent to deploy applications that are built on open architecture methodology for interfacing with third party systems. Security Any system to be successful should provide security, reliability and confidentiality of data. This can be achieved through the use of encryption technology before the online trading begins. The exchange must ensure that records maintained in electronic form by the broker are not susceptible to manipulation, and adequate back-ups and storage are available. The security features demanded by regulatory authorities include a unique user identification number and passwords that can be renewed from time to time to prevent hacking by outsiders. The major security requirements of e-broking1 are: Trusted means of authentication over open networks Confidentiality of the transaction Means to ensure integrity of data in transit Means to ensure ruin-repudiation of payment or its receipt. Various security models are adopted to secure e-broking transactions. The commonly employed security models in e-Broking are: passwords. Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), Kerberos, Pretty Good Privacy (PGP), Public Key Infrastructure (PKI), and Custom Implementations. (Odyssey Technologies) Future of E-trading Industry Exchanges across the globe are exploring an alliance that will create a 24-hour global equity market. The NYSE and exchanges from three main time zones—Australia, Tokyo and Hong Kong in the Asia-Pacific; Sao Paulo, Mexico and Toronto in the Americas; and Euronext, the combined Amsterdam, Brussels and Paris exchanges in Europe—plan to form a trading mechanism that will allow trading of the worlds global companies. Each of the partnering markets will retain its brand and form a platform to allow companies with worldwide demand to experience 24-hour trading of their shares. This is expected to lead to a better price discovery on a global basis. (Marlin) The proposed Global Equity Market (GEM) link the trading systems of each exchange to provide a global market structure based on the principles of transparency, self-regulation and agency-auction price discovery. (Angel)   This high-tech linkup of auction markets will create a global pool of liquidity, facilitate global price discovery and provide investors with better access to global stocks. The GEM will address investors appetite for big-capitalized stocks by providing them easier access to stocks not currently available on their local Stock Exchange. The market capitalization of the companies listed on the participating exchanges is expected It) exceed $20 trillion, representing more than 60 percent of the worlds market capitalization. Like the 24-hour Forex market and its electronic network SWIFT, the GEM will have an Electronic Communication Network (ECN), thereby realizing the ultimate potential of E-trading.   (Marlin) Nowadays, the structure of commercial finance is about to change dramatically. In place of the traditional bank-centered model, where institutions call the shots about who gets loans and who carries risk, we are going to see dominant players in their supply chain (companies such as Hewlett Packard or General Electric) use E-trading tools to drive the provision of financial services in the future. Today, companies like HP, GE, GM, and FedEx already exert tremendous influence on their trading partners. Their expressed and inferred capital goods requirements drive billions of dollars in marketing, sales, investment, and product decisions by their global business partners. (Macauley) Emerging E-trading environments will provide an ideal vehicle for investors to get access to transactions at the point of salethrough independent E-trading platforms or direct access to legacy enterprise systems. Their development will drive a major revolution in working capital financing in the United States, and that the funding vehicle is securitization. And there is also belief that the runway to securitization of commercial assets is shorter than one might expect. Securitization is a proven financial technology that is used to fund trillions of dollars of credit card, mortgage, auto loan, and a variety of specialty consumer loans each year. It provides the lowest cost, is the most efficient vehicle for funding large pools of financial assets, and, with modest enhancements, can be adapted to the E-trading environment. With small equity charges, high liquidity, low processing costs, and capital markets pricing, it presents a compelling opportunity for E-traders. (Berber) Today a few triple-A companies like GE are able to fund their own working capital requirements through their captive commercial paper conduits, and finance companies frequently fund their deal flow through third-party conduits (and a thick layer of equity capital). (Kelly) But to do so, there is need to solve several complex problems such as standard risk scoring, transaction capture, and back office processing services. Major initiatives are underway to solve eachand winners will innovatively combine them to create this new marketplace. Ultimately, it expected to see hundreds of billions in capital liberated from de-levered balance sheets of enterprises around the world. Bibliography Macauley, John T. The End of CI Lending. ABA Banking Journal, Vol. 93, 2001 Colkin, Cuneo.   E-trading Hangs On. InformationWeek, Issue 918, (12 Sep 2002):43. Kelly, Susan. The Rocky Road to Corporate E-trading. Treasury Risk Management, Vol. 11 Issue 9, (Oct 2001):55 Berber, Philip. From SOES to E-SOS: The Rise of E-trading, The Fall of Exchanges. Securities Industry News, , Vol. 12 Issue 15, (04 Oct 2000):3 Marlin, Steven. NYSE Aims at E-trading. InformationWeek, Issue 1001, (8 Sep 2004):22 Tower Group Research: Online Brokerage Becoming the Norm: Discount and Full Service Brokers Seek New Ways to Differentiate, July 2004 New York Stock Exchange., The Formation of a Global Equity Market, July 2002 www.nyse.com/content/articles Angel, James J, Consolidation in Global Equity Market, An Historical Perspective, 1998 Odyssey Technologies, PKI for E-broking, www.odysseytec.com E*Trade Website   www.etrade.com Schwab Charles Company Website http://www.aboutschwab.com/schwabcorp/history.html FreeTrade by AmeriTrade Website www.freetrade.com The Financial Cafe.com Website www.thefinancialcafe.com

Personality factors that underlie belief in the paranormal

Personality factors that underlie belief in the paranormal Although the term paranormal refers to hypothesized processes that in principle are physically impossible or outside the realm of human capabilities (Thalbourne, 1982; as cited in Irwin, 1993, p. 1), belief in the paranormal seem to be surprisingly common in this modern, technologically sophisticated world. The influence of paranormal phenomena can be observed in the entertaining media as well as in the news, in sports, in business and in peoples everyday lives (Goode, 2000). But why people believe in the paranormal phenomena or what persuade them to do so? Skeptics as well as non-skeptics have interests in investigating the nature of belief in the paranormal, albeit with somewhat different objectives in mind. The majority of previous research examining paranormal belief and personality correlates has taken a skeptical view, which suggests that paranormal believers are psychologically dysfunctional, for example, psychotic, neurotic and depressive. Non-skeptics however, at the same ti me have tried to challenge this hypothesis. The purpose of this study is to support skeptical point of view; firstly, personality factors that may underlie belief in the paranormal phenomena will be described and evaluated. Secondly, the impact of culture and subjective experience on belief in paranormal phenomena will be evaluated. According to Irwin (1993) paranormal beliefs are held because they serve significant psychodynamic needs of the individual and in general this statement is called psychodynamic functions hypothesis (p. 21). According to this hypothesis, skeptics very often consider paranormal believers as psychologically deviant and relate their behaviour with psychopathology. Not without a reason, however. The vast majority of evidence (i.e. Irwin Green, 1998; Hergovich et al., 2008) indicates that people who believe in paranormal phenomena expose schizotypal tendencies. The findings of Irwin and Green (1998) suggest that people who have schizotypal tendencies (schizotypal personality disorder is a condition that resembles a less severe version of schizophrenia, Vyse, 1997) in the cognitive-perceptual area are likely to confirm beliefs in Spiritualism and Precognition as well as in Extraordinary Life Forms and Witchcraft. Hergovichs et al. (2008) findings give a support to the hypothesis that schiz otypy is heavily associated with paranormal belief and approve that belief in Precognition, Psi, Witchcraft and Spiritualism can also be predicted very well by schizotypy. Moreover, previous studies (i.e. Sica et al., 2002) also confirm that a high involvement in superstition seems to play a role in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Although non-skeptics argue that paranormal beliefs and obsessive-complusive disorder or schizotypal personality disorder remain unrelated (Vyse, 1997), evidence suggests that disorders mentioned above do seem to be associated with belief in paranormal phenomena. Additionally, from the objective and scientific point of view, people who endorse beliefs in paranormal phenomena are irrational, even though the irrationality of most believers is mild compared to psychopathological behaviour. And although, such individuals are not disturbed by their experiences and stay psychologically healthy (notion of the happy schizotype, Lawrence Peters, 2004), they are, however similar to people diagnosed with schizophrenia on a number of correlates as well as are at higher risk to experience more severe psychotic-like experiences and to deve lop psychotic disorders (Clardige, 1994). Thus, scientific evidence in this case seems to be pervasive; less pervasive however seem to be evidence relating to extraversion, a measure of the individuals sociability. According to Maltby et al. (2007) individuals who score highly on extraversion are very sociable, energetic, optimistic, friendly and assertive and are labelled extraverts. However, individuals with low scores are labelled introverts, often described as reserved and independent. Some of the evidence does not support a relationship between extraversion and paranormal belief (i.e. Williams et al., 2007); however, a number of studies have found a correlation between extraversion and ESP performance (i.e. Lawrence, 2001). The reason why extraversion is not as obvious predictor of belief in paranormal phenomena may be limited reliability of this psychological trait (Tam Shiah, 2004). Meanwhile, the association of extraversion with belief in paranormal phenomena remain to some extent uncertain; therefore more scientific research has to be conducted. According to Williams et al. (2007), neuroticism is fundamental to individual differences in paranormal belief. Moreover, Thalbourne et al. (1995) has found neuroticism to be significantly correlated with an overall Paranormal Belief Scale score, Traditional Religious Belief, Psi, Witchcraft, as well as with the Australian Sheep-Goat Scale, which addresses belief in and personal experience of ESP, Telepathy, Precognition, and Life After Death. Neuroticism, can be described as the tendency to experience negative emotions, especially anxiety, depression, anger. Therefore neurotic individuals can be characterized as emotionally unstable, irrational personalities with often low self-esteem (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2007). Wiseman Watt (2004) indicate that people who are anxious are more superstitious than those who are not. However, non-skeptics argue that even though a person is more likely to engage in superstitious behaviour while experiencing certain emotions, specifically fear and anxiet y, belief in paranormal is not usually the cause of emotional difficulties (Vyse, 1997). Thus, according to non-skeptical point of view, claiming that superstitious people are more anxious than those who are not superstitious is overlapping. However, the vast majority of scientific evidence suggests this personality dimension to positively correlate with belief in paranormal phenomena. In addition, an association between paranormal belief and a depressive attributional style when using the Attributional Style Questionnaire as an indicator of depression has also been found (Dudley Whisnand, 2000). The results of this study demonstrate significantly higher depressive attributional styles among college students with high scores on paranormal phenomena than college students with low scores. Thus, the vast majority of evidence indicating relationship between belief in paranormal phenomena and neuroticism seem to be more pervasive than non-scientific evidence demonstrated by non-skeptics. Psychoticism has also been found to be associated with belief in paranormal phenomena (Francis et al., 2010). It is claimed that those who score high on the psychoticism scale can be characterised as cold, aggressive, tough-minded, antisocial and impersonal. Francis et al. (2010) study aimed to investigate personality dimensions associated with conventional Christian belief and unconventional paranormal belief. It has been found that conventional Christian belief is associated with lower psychoticism scores, whereas unconventional paranormal belief is associated with higher psychoticism scores. Thus, it may be concluded that paranormal believers behaviour may be more aggressive and antisocial than paranormal non-believers behaviour. According to Irwin and Watt (2007) people who believe in paranormal may be little concerned about the needs or attitudes of other people, may be socially alienated, may display low social interest and have a grandiose sense of their own importance and uniqueness. This description indicates on narcissism, another personality dimension associated with belief in paranormal phenomena. Positive correlation between narcissism dimension and belief in Psi, Precognition, Witchcraft and Spiritualism has been reported, which means that believers in paranormal may be preoccupied with fantasies of unlimited power and success (as cited in Irwin Watt, 2007). Recent studies therefore seem to confirm Tobacyk and Mitchells (1987) findings, where although a small, but significant correlation between narcissism and the paranormal beliefs of Psi and Precognition has been found. Thus, having found correlation between narcissism and belief in paranormal may indicate problems associated with psychological adjustment amongst people who believe in paranormal phenomena (Irwin Watt, 2007). There is also a general trend for paranormal belief to be associated with the locus of control. Locus of control refers to a dimension of personality and to do with whether or not a person perceives their behaviour to be related to outcomes, such as rewards and punishments (Pennington, 2003, p. 253). Individuals who believe personal outcomes are contingent largely on their own behaviour and attributes are said to have an internal locus of. However, people with external locus of control see personal outcomes as chance or luck (Pennington, 2003). It is claimed that people who believe in paranormal phenomena are inclined to maintain that they are especially vulnerable to external forces beyond their control; thus posses external locus of control (Irwin Watt, 2007). This relationship has been well documented, especially in regard to ESP, Witchcraft, Precognition, Spiritualism and Extraordinary Life Forms (as cited in Irwin Watt, 2007). Groth-Mamat and Pegden (1998) also have found external locus of control to be associated with greater overall paranormal belief, although this was not quite significant. This study has provided some support to the claim that those who believe that their life is dependent on external factors are more likely to believe in the paranormal. However, a more external locus of control was significantly related to greater belief in Spirituality and Precognition. Presumably, belief in Spirituality is associated to external locus of control due to a belief that spiritual forces have an impact on peoples lives. Peoples beliefs in Precognition can also be associated with an external locus of control because their lives might be perceived somewhat pre-determined. However, greater belief in superstition was related to a more internal locus of control. The results of this study suggest rather than there being a direct association between paranormal belief in general and an external locus of control, it may be that those who believe in Precognition and Spirituality are more likely to have an external locus of control while those who believe in Superstition are more likely to have an internal locus of control (p. 293). Thus, this study demonstrates that paranormal belief is not only related to external locus of control but the association between internal locus of control and paranormal belief (Superstition in this case) has also been found. Paranormal belief seem to also be correlated positively with measures of creativity, sensation seeking and hypnotic susceptibility what suggest a linkage to a cognitive style of fantasizing (as cited in Irwin Watt, 2007). It is claimed that personality factor of fantasy proneness correlates positively with nearly all dimensions of paranormal belief, such as global paranormal belief, Precognition, Psi, Witchcraft, Extraordinary Life Forms and Spiritualism (Irwin, 1993). It has been established that fantasy prone people fantasize a lot and while fantasizing they are deeply absorbed in or fully experience what is being fantasized. This cognitive style has interested many scientists wanting to investigate the origins of paranormal belief. It has been found that one of the major factors related with the development of this personality dimension may be a history of physical abuse or other trauma during childhood; this may be an important factor in explaining individuals openness to parano rmal. Rabeyron and Watt (2010), for example, found a strong significant correlation between paranormal experiences and traumas. Nevertheless, further research on correlation between paranormal belief and trauma is needed, especially because there are other factors that might need to be taken into account. According to Lynn and Rhue (1988) childrens fantasy proneness can be fostered by parental encouragement, and the development of paranormal belief therefore should be investigated also in relation to these more positive aspects of the family setting than just the level of physical abuse. Nevertheless, the vast majority of evidence indicates fantasy proneness to be strongly correlated with belief in paranormal phenomena. This claim seem to be also accepted by non-skeptics (Vyse, 1997). Recapitulating, it is important to mention that despite of the dispute between skeptics and non-skeptics, personality dimensions seem to have a considerable impact on peoples belief in paranormal phenomena. Some researchers claim that there are other factors that have an impact on peoples belief in paranormal phenomena, such as culture, media, social influence or subjective experience. According to Irwin (1993) the level of paranormal belief in an individual is in part a function of that persons cultural environment. However, it should not be argued that the origin of paranormal beliefs lies in the individuals culture. It is more acceptable to claim that culture is responsible not for paranormal belief, but rather for the specific forms of the beliefs. For instance, people may be members of various cultural groups, whereas this membership will rule the characteristics of paranormal beliefs accepted by the individual. In summary, paranormal beliefs may be modelled on examples provided by parents, friends or other persuasive people. Ridolfo et al. (2010) for example found relatively strong evidence that individuals are more likely to accept paranormal claims as true when they believe such claims have popular support. However, the exact relationship between paranormal beliefs and social-group influences remains uncertain (Markovsky Thye, 2001). Furthermore, even a little exposure to paranormal concepts through the media and social interaction may incline individual to unintentionally interpret personal encounters with anomalous events as paranormal phenomena. Thus, it is assumed that some correlates of individual dimensions of paranormal belief may reflect the operation of cultural and sub-cultural factors (Irwin, 1993, p. 26). However, individual must be intrinsically vulnerable for these cultural impacts to be effective. Therefore, even though paranormal beliefs might have cultural basis, the basis of vulnerability to the beliefs must be investigated in the psychodynamic domain (Schumaker, 1990; as cited in Irwin, 1993). It is also worth noting that the most common reason given for believing in paranormal phenomena is personal experience (Blackmore 1984, as cited in Blackmore, 1997) and strength of paranormal belief is positively correlated with number of subjective paranormal experiences (Glicksohn, 1990). However, Blackmore (1997) indicates that people who believe in the paranormal are more likely to interpret normal events as paranormal as well as are more likely to misinterpret normal events as paranormal what encourages their belief. As mentioned before the term paranormal refers to hypothesized processes that in principle are physically impossible or outside the realm of human capabilities (Thalbourne, 1982; as cited in Irwin, 1993, p. 1). Although scientists very often disagree about the meaning of empirical tests, data, empiricism is a highly valued source of knowledge. There is clearly still much empirical work yet to be done to investigate personality correlates with paranormal beliefs. The popularity of paranormal beliefs in the society and the evident influence of these beliefs on peoples life call for further investigation and verification for providing a better understanding of the functions and origins of paranormal belief. And even though, there is still a lot of uncertainty about which personality factors have an impact on individuals belief in the paranormal phenomena, skeptical point of view, considered as more scientific, seem to be more persuasive than non-skeptical. Word count: 2 396

Definition Of Hiv And Aids Health And Social Care Essay

Definition Of Hiv And Aids Health And Social Care Essay I have chosen the topic of HIV/AIDS. In this written assignment, Firstly, I will start by introducing what are HIV and AIDS and the influence of them. Secondly, I will generate some figure of the world and also in Hong Kong. Then, I will use the biopsychosocial model to describe the causes of HIV. Last but not lease, I will discuss the health promotion and Motivation Strategies. 2. Definition of HIV and AIDS: Definition of HIV The short term of Human Immunodeficiency Virus is called HIV which is a virus and it is reported by Dr. Luc Montagnier in 1983. They cannot reproduce and grow by themselves, they have to rely on a living organism and infect the cell of them in order to replicate. Viruses usually are found and killed by the human immune system quickly, however, HIV could directly attack the human immune system which would affect our body health and cannot get rid of a virus. Definition of AIDS AIDS Acquires Immune Deficiency Syndrome which is caused by inflection of HIV which would destroys the human ability to fight with the diseases and cancers. AIDS is not a single disease and it combine with opportunistic infection which would invade the live body easily when the immune system is destroyed. People with HIV are not equal to infect AIDS. For the people who inflect HIV can also remain dormant in body for several years. During the median incubation period, for adult, it would take ten years to develop AIDS on average. And a lot of people with HIV may be unaware of their inflection status and look healthy. 3. Influence For the people who have infected HIV are they are higher risk to get infected and malignancies because the immune system is damage which is called opportunistic infects. The most common HIV-related opportunistic infections and diseases includes the bacterial diseases and protozoal diseases, fungal diseases, Viral diseases and HIV-associated malignancies. There are different condition would appear in different stage of HIV infection. For the first stage patient, they have higher rate to infect tuberculosis, bacterial pneumonia, malaria, staphylococcal skin infections, herpes zoster and septicaemia and more difficult to recover. For the later stage of the patient, the immune system is being more and more weak, it is easier for them to infect PCP, cryptococcosis and toxoplasmosis which can be fatal. 4. Figure of HIV/AIDS HIV is a global epidemic. They affect different country of the world. It could have negative effects in families, communities and the whole countries. From the above bar chart, we can find that the number of people living with HIV increase from 8 million in1990 to 34 million in 2010. Also, in recent years, the overall number of growth of the epidemic has become more stable and the annual number of the new inflection has continuously decreased because of the increasing number of people has received antiretroviral therapy. Moreover, AID-related deaths number has also decrease. From the above bar chart, it is clearly to see the majority people living with HIV is mostly live in low and middle income countries, especially Sub-Saharan Africa where has two-thirds of all infected people of the whole world which carries the greatest burden of the epidemic. Also, South and South-East Asia is the second highest number of people who are infected HIV. Figure in Hong Kong This research is done by The Virtual AIDS Office (VAO) of Hong Kong. In Hong Kong, the first case of HIV infection was reported in 1984. From the above graphics, we would find that the number of case of people infected HIV keep on increasing in recent years. The number of cases has a mild drop in 2009 and 2010, however, the number of case in 2011 increase to a record high of 438 cases. Also, it is clearly to find the most inflection were in adult, male and Chinese. In 2011, there is 79% of the reported cases were men and 66% of reported cases is Chinese and the 83% of the reported cases aged between 20-49 which is the highest. This pie chart show the suspected route of HIV transmission in 2011, we would find that the large proportion of people getting infected HIV is from sexual transmission which includes 39% of homosexual, 27% of heterosexual and 4% of bisexual. Also, 3.5% is infected from blood contact which includes contaminated blood, blood products and needles. 5. Causes Biological Causes Transmission of HIV Sexual contact During the sexual contact, the semen or vaginal discharge of the inflected partner would directly in contact with the mucous membrane of the male and females reproductive organ. Therefore, homosexual and homosexual contact can transmit HIV, such as vaginal, oral or anal sex. And the risk of HIV transmission would increase when there is ulcer and blood during the sexual contact. Blood contact HIV would be transmitted by contaminated blood, blood products and needles because there is the high concentration of HIV in blood of the people inflected. It is common to find that blood-borne transmission of HIV often occurs when the drug users who infected HIV share the needles with others. Also, we would find some cases in the health care setting, such as needlestick injuries and the HIV transfuse to the blood or blood product. Mother to infant infection During pregnancy, delivery or breasting feeding, there is 15-40% change that HIV can transmit the infant if the mother is infected. Psychological Causes There are a lot of psychological causes would increase the risk of HIV. For examples, the personal depression, suicidal thoughts, lack of sleep would lead to an increase of stress and may cause some psychiatric problems which would slow down our immune systems and we have to place more stain on it. Also, for the people who have infected HIV it would lead to high HIV viral loads. Furthermore, increase of stress will cause a lot of problems. When people getting more and more stressful, some people may choose to go to the recreational place to relax themselves, such as clubbing, bar and game center. It is easier for them to meet some bad friend and they may mislead them to take the drugs or have the sexual relation which would increase the risk of HIV transmission, such as blood contact and sexual contact. In addition, for the people who have infected HIV, eating habit would also affect the process from HIV to AIDS which is base on the diet of the patient. It would be faster if the patient is malnourished. Sociological Causes For the developing country In the developing country, there is a lack of antiretroviral treatments and poor health care system which leads to the rate of people infected HIV remains in a high level. People in the developing countries are unawareness of HIV, For the modern society In the modern society, people are more open-minded. A lot of people may choose to go to the club or bar to relax after work and they may think there is nothing problem to have sex with somebody and it would lead to an increase to the number of people getting sexual contact. -Media The mass media always play the central role of the whole society and it would affect the mind of the citizen. In the modern society, one of the causes that people getting more and more open-minded is affect by the media. Although they are not aim to send whose messages to them, but when they watch the movies or a TV programmes that the actors can easily have the sexual relation to others or they are taking drugs which would directly affect their mind and they may want to imitate. It would increase the risk of infect HIV through blood contact and sexual contact. 6. Health promotion Information and education The effective AIDS programme should promote the information and provision of education which is the key prerequisites. It should cover the all sectors of the society and educate them in a way that they can easily understand and acceptable. Also, it should be put effort continuously to achieve the outcome. HIV and AIDS education in schools For educating the young about HIV and AIDS, the most common place is to learn from school which is a crucial setting to educate the young. School usually pays an important role in shaping the youths attitudes, opinions and behavior. Therefore, teaching in school about the biological aspects of HIV and AIDS is ideal environment for teaching the social. HIV and AIDS education in the workplace To prevent HIV/AIDS, the key location is to educate them in the workplace. It is an important way to give them the information about what are HIV/AIDS, the causes and some prevention. Also, teaching them at the workplace can reach people who have not learn it before at school. Moreover, there are some researches found that there are nine out of ten people who are infected HIV are working. Therefore, providing education at the workplace can help the people live healthier. For the government, they can promote some programs of the International Labour Organization (ILO) for some company to join. One of the aim of the International Labour Organization is to promote different prevent solutions at the workplace and support the workers with HIV, such as providing treatment and care. -HIV and AIDS education through the mass media Also the other effective way is educating the public through the mass media. Mass media always play the central role in a lot of countries in respond to HIV and AIDS. For example, UK government in order to raise the awareness of the public about the HIV and AIDS, they use the progamme called blanket education which make good use of the mass media that can cover the whole society, and it is really successful in promoting HIV and AIDS. -Clinical and support service Information and education is not sufficient to inform to public. The most critical step is to provide the counselling, advice, medical treatments and support services which should also cover the whole society, especially for whole who are high risk to infect HIV, such as the drugs users, commercial sex workers. These treatments and services are both essential to the AIDS programme which can fight against the disease. For example, for the prevention of sexual Transmission of HIV, there are some sexually transmitted diseases(STD) clinics can promote some AIDS information and education to be informed to the patients, such as inform the people who have high risk of infecting HIV should have a regular test. Also, an effective AIDS programme should train some health professional to provide effective treatments to the patients. 7. Motivation Strategies -For the people who have not inflect HIV To prevent sexual contact Apart from abstinence, safe sex should be mutually monogamous sexual relationship with an uninfected person. If you do not know your partner is affected or not, you should use the condoms from the beginning whatever which types of sexual intercourse. Using condoms can reduce the risk of infecting HIV. To protect yourself and to love your sexual partner, condoms have to use properly and consistently. To prevent blood contact For drug user: There are 4 things that they can do to prevent the blood contact. Firstly, they should avoid taking drugs and as soon as possible to seek the drug treatment and rehabilitation services. Secondly, if someone cannot avoid taking drug immediately, the injecting method of taking drugs should be adopted and they should join the methadone treatment programme. Thirdly, if the drug users cannot stop to injecting drugs, they should not share syringes and needles to other and they should use once-only syringes and needles. Lastly, if the drugs users do not have their own syringe and needles, they should use bleach to clear the syringe twice and twice with water to avoid infection. For health care workers: In the health care setting, health care workers are easier to have some blood borne diseases such as HIV through needlestick injury. If the accident occurs, to reduce the risk of infection, first-aid management is very important. Moreover, the most effective way to reduce the risk of infection is to use universal precautions to all patients, such as wearing the protective barriers and washing hand frequently. To prevent mother to infant infection For the women who are considering having a baby or have been pregnant, if they are suspected to be infected with HIV, they should talk to their doctors or the AIDS counselor and should have an HIV antibody test. Furthermore, to prevent mother-to-child transmission, there is a way to use antiretroviral drugs which can reduce the risk of the child getting infected HIV. For the people infected HIV: Have the Medical management of HIV infection Although from now on, there is no such method to root up the disease, but there is some treatment have been made of AIDS. It includes two types, one is the antiretroviral drugs adoption which can control the activities of the HIV, help to restore the immunity functions and minimize the harmful effect of the virus. The other one is to have some treatment and prophylaxis to minimize the risk of opportunistic infection. Using the above methods can improve the health of the infected people and improve their quantity of life and survival in people. Therefore, for the people infected, they should have the regular medical follow-up for monitoring of the disease, so that the health care professional can follow the cases. It can detect the complications earlier and have appropriate treatment which can improve the survival change. Control your emotion When the patients face the illness of HIV/AIDS, they must feel fear, uncertainty, guilt, anxiety, anger and depression. However, it may something worsen the situation. Therefore, they should not deny their feeling. Ventilation of feeling may help them to resolving the emotional problem. You may share your feeling and concern to someone you trust. They may also try to gain counseling support, there will be the social worker to help you. 8. Conclusion To conclude, from the above passages, we would found that the number of people getting infected HIV is remind in a high level. And the causes can separate into the biological, such as the transmission of HIV, psychological, such as the stress and eating habit and sociological causes which depend on the different countries and society. Moreover, there is some health promotion which should educate the public and provide some clinical treatment and services to them. Lastly, we have discussed the motivation strategies which design for the people have not inflected and the patient with HIV. And I believe that with the above methods, the problems of HIV/AIDS would be improved in foreseeable further.

The Body, Meaning and Symbols in Medical Anthropology Essay examples --

In the course of the study of medicine from an anthropological perspective, there are several themes which are repeatedly encountered. These include the body and its representation, meaning and a person’s response to that meaning, and finally, the symbolic images which construct and shape both meaning and the bodily representation. Each of these themes are addressed throughout medical anthropological texts, and are connected to and build on each other in a variety of ways. The body is the site of medicine, because the body is the site of all cultural practices. As Byron Good states, â€Å"medicine formulates the human body and disease in a culturally distinctive fashion†. (Good, 65) It is the cultural fashion of western medicine to objectify the body by constructing it in purely biochemical and molecular terms. As Shiehisa Kuriyama shows us in his work, this is the result of the historical development of Greek medicine and its intersection with the western scientific sentiment. Kuriyama says, â€Å"conceptions of the body owe as much to particular uses of the senses as to particular ‘ways of thinking.’† (Kuriyama, 12) He goes on to explain how a tradition of empiricism and a belief that â€Å"only [literal speech] can insure limpid understanding; [figurative speech] is profoundly unreliable† (Kuriyama, 75), informed the development of the western medical culture. With the obsession with clear and unambiguous language came a set of presuppositions, which, among other things, created a hierarchy of bodily representation. Kuriyama describes this in terms of western obsessions with musculature or the Chinese emphasis on how the skin looks. When the West undertook its various imperialistic projects across the globe this hierarchy of the... ...sm for a lack of modernity. Villagers were keenly aware of what the shaman meant not only to their own culture, but also what it meant to those in the transnational space, and their conception changes because of this. Thus we see how medical anthropology studies and provides analysis on the issues of the body, bodily perception, and the representation of the body, as well as meaning and symbolism. Also we see how medical anthropology takes these interpretations and uses them to critique the system’s practices. The biomedical system largely ignores the social aspects of illness, and this does a disservice to the suffering individual it seeks to restore. It emphasizes a biological reductionism which limits the care it can bring to the person it reconstructs as a patient, and in doing so, it discounts the multiple meanings medical symbols can hold for the patient.

Thoedore Roosevelt :: essays research papers

Theodore Roosevelt and the Modern Presidency I.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Early Political Career Despite ridicule from his educated and respectable friends, Roosevelt entered politics immediately after graduating from Harvard College in 1880. In 1881,Roosevelt showed the strength of his intention by winning election to the New York State Assembly. He gained reelection twice before personal tragedy, On February 14,1884, in a tragic coincidence, Roosevelt’s young wife died in childbirth just hours after the death of his beloved mother. Emotionally shattered, Roosevelt left politics and fled New York for the Dakota Territory. In 1886, after a disastrous winter demolished most of his cattle herd, Roosevelt returned east to politics, his first love. For the next 12 years, he held various government positions, from Civil Service Commissioner to Assistant Secretary of the Navy. When the United States went to war against Spain in 1898, Roosevelt resigned and organized a group of volunteers called the Rough Riders. Their successful assault on San Juan Hill in Cuba made Roosevelt a National hero. He rode his new fame to victory in the 1898 race for governor of New York. II.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Roosevelt and McKinley   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When President McKinley prepared to run for reelection in 1900, he needed someone to replace Garret Hobart, his first vice president, who had died in 1899.Roosevelt seemed a logical choice. Basically a man of action, Roosevelt considered the vice presidency a do-nothing position leading to political oblivion. The bosses schemed to kick Roosevelt out of New York to serve as McKinley’s vice president. After he and McKinley won the election, Roosevelt sadly wrote to a friend, â€Å"I do not expect to go any further in politics.† Wherever Roosevelt went he became the center of attention. During the late 1800s, the country had been designated by strong Congresses and relatively weak presidents. Roosevelt reversed that traditional division of power. The new president employed the considerable powers of his office and his own personal magnetism to bypass congressional opposition. In doing so, Roosevelt became the first modern president. III.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Managing Natural Resources   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1902 Roosevelt supported passage of the Newlands Reclamation Act, which authorized the use of federal funds from the sale of public lands to pay for irrigation and land development projects in the dry farms and cities of the West. Under new law, Roosevelt supported the construction of 25irrigation or reclamation projects. Roosevelt also backed efforts to save the nation’s forests by preventing shortsighted lumbering companies from overcutting. He appointed close friend Gifford Pinchot to head the U.

Alice Munro and Anton Chekhov Essay

The comparative analysis of the stories of two famous contemporary writers Alice Munro and Anton Chekhov gives an opportunity to follow the development of the genre of short stories in Canadian and in Russian literature. Both are stalwarts of their respective literature. Commenting on the greatness of A. Chekhov, E. B. Tager writes: As far as Chekhov is concerned, it is not enough to say that the nineties ushered in a new stage in his literary career, these were the years when Chekhov’s genius was formed and he came to occupy one of the leading places among the greatest exponents of realism in the world literature of that time. (15) The proliferation of women writers is a remarkable feature of the Canadian literary scene of the second half of this century. It is interesting to note that most of the women writers have taken up the fiction as their favorite genre. Alice Munro opted for short story genre. In her early period of her literary career, her mastery as a short story writer is amply revealed. In an interview to Graeme Gibson, Munro said â€Å"— I grew up in a rural community, a very traditional community—. The concern of everyone else I know was dealing with life on a very practical level—† (246). Both the writers wrote stories under different circumstances of social life, customs, cultures, traditions, family surroundings, etc. in Ontario and Russia. What is the significance of comparing both the writers? Chekhov comes to help in this regard when he writes in 1888: â€Å"It is possible to gather all the best of the creations of artists of all ages and using the scientific method find out the common factors which stipulate their value† (218). With this perspective at the back of mind, let us see Munro and Chekhov. The article writer has no intention of looking into literary links between the two countries. Nor does it necessary to analyse the historical surroundings. The main objective is to make a comparative study of the artistic merits of Munro and Chekhov as short story writers. Alice Munro’s work is often compared with the great short story writers. For example, the American writer Cynthia Ozick wrote, â€Å"She is our Chekhov, and is going to outlast most of her contemporaries.† There are a number of similarities in both these writers. One remarkable similarity reveals from their interviews and writings. Chekhov strives to come closer to the life of ordinary people. He wants in a broader and deeper way to be got acquainted with reality. â€Å"If I am a doctor,† wrote Chekhov in 1891, â€Å"then I need patients and hospitals, if I am a literary man, then it is necessary for me to live among people† (255). On the other hand, Munro writes about the human condition and relationships seen through the lens of daily life. Munro grew up in Wingham, in Huron County, Ontario, on the banks of the Maitland River. She is able to deal with all sorts of people, and small towns. Another similar point between them is the delineation of women. Chekhov often ponders over the fate of Russian women. Sophia (â€Å"Volodya Senior and Volodya Junior†, 1893) Vera (â€Å"In the Native Land†, 1897), Nadya (â€Å"The Bride†) are some of the representative of Russian society that Chekhov depicts. Munro was fond of reading southern women writers, like Eudora Welty, Flannery O’Connor, Katherine Ann Porter, Carson McCullers, as these women â€Å"could write about the freakish, the marginal† (Jeanne McCulloch, Mona Simpson, 2). Collections such as The Beggar Maid: Stories of Flo & Rose (1977), The Love of a Good Woman (1998), Lives of Girls and Women (1971), and Too Much Happiness (2009), depict the plights of girls, young women and unmarried women. When Munro was compared to Chekhov for certain similarities and differences, Munro expresses her feelings: â€Å"I have recently re-read much of Chekhov and it’s a humbling experience. I don’t even claim Chekhov as an influence because he influenced all of us. Like Shakespeare his writing shed the most perfect light – there is no striving in it, no personality. Well, of course, would not I love to do that!† (Internet: â€Å"A Conversation with Alice Munro†). There are critics and reviewers who have or share different opinions. According to The New Review, â€Å"The comparison to Chekhov is absurd, both qualitatively and innovatively. She even pales besides someone like Doris Lessing, who also trumps her in quality and daring† (Internet,I). The New Review further observes: â€Å"She is more like Canada’s Eudora Welty, although her tales are less brocaded and ornate. Yet they are dull, as she seems to be obsessed with her own ideas of her past, like too many workshop writers of the present, but her biggest flaw is that she simply is predictable† (Internet, I). However, there are critics and reviewers who compare Chekhov with Munro. Cynthia Ozick eulogizes her saying that Munro is â€Å"one of our greatest contemporary writers of fiction— our Chekhov† (Internet, I). Alice Munro is routinely spoken of in the same breath as Anton Chekhov. She resembles the Russian master in a number of ways. She is fascinated with the failings of love and work and has an obsession with time and our much – lamented inability to delay or prevent its relentless movement forward. A frequent theme of her work – particularly evident in her early stories – has been the dilemmas of a girl coming of age and coming to terms with her family and the small town she grew up in. In recent works such as Hatehip, Friendship, Courtship, Loveship, Marriage (2001) and Runaway (2004) she has shifted her focus to the travails of middle age, of women alone and of the elderly. There is the same penetrating psychological insight. Like Chekhov, Munro focuses her attention not on the external events, but on the internal life of the heroes and heroines of her stories. In Munro’s fictional universe, as in Chekhov’s, plot is of secondary importance: all is based on the epiphanic moment, the sudden enlightenment, the concise, subtle, revelatory detail. Chekhov builds up the plots with great mastery. Very often these are rich in events. But even in these cases it is not the events which are of primary importance but the process of spiritual evolution of the heroes of his stories. Events interest the another to the extent they leave their mark on the spiritual life of the heroes. In the construction of plots, we find there is a lot in common between the stories of Munro and Chekhov. Another signification feature of Munro’s is the (typically Canadian) is the connection to the land, to what Margaret Atwood has called a â€Å"harsh and vast geography† (2). Munro is attuned to the shifts and colours of the natural world, to life lived with the wilderness. Her skill at describing the constituency of the environment is equal to her ability to get below the surface of the lives of her characters. Munro and Chekhov set their stories in the small towns. Most of the stories of Chekhov focus on Sakhalin, a place that gave much of the subject for his novels. Chekhov reflects upon the bourgeois society that is responsible for many victims. Munro has all praise for small towns as settings. As she says: When you live in small town, you hear more things, about all sorts of people. In a city you mainly hear stories about your own sort of people. If you are a woman there’s always a lot from your friends.— In a city, I would only have read about it in the paper; I wouldn’t have picked up all the threads. (Jeanne McCulloch and Mona Simpson, 1) Most of the stories are set in a fictionalized version of Huron County. Her stories insist on exploring economic and cultural specificity of this milieu, and she has sought to capture the rhythm and idiom of the region. One of the main artistic methods used by Chekhov is his objectivity in depicting reality. Commenting on Chekhov’s method of narration, A.P. Chadakuv, the Soviet critic observes: â€Å"The final victory of an objective manner of narration was during 1889-1890— Just in the year 1890 Chekhov formulated his aesthetic credo, his main artistic principle – the principle of objectivity† (22). S. Ramaswamy, inhis article on â€Å"The Art of Alice Munro† (2009), comments that â€Å"It is a sort of self-reflexive narrative and the â€Å"I-narrator’s† involvement with two â€Å"husbands† and interesting characters† (80). Ramaswamy, analyses the art of technique of Something I Have Been Meaning to Tell You (1974) and says â€Å"This technique of the writer commenting on the writing while writing it is what makes it the self-conscious, self-reflexive ‘metafiction’. This technique is best illustrated in Alice Munro’s putting a few lines in the italics and then objectively commenting on them herself in the next lines in ordinary print† (80-81). Reviewing the short story form one notices that both the writers, Chekhov and Munro have successfully used the form in an innovative manner to highlight the predicament and dilemma of men and women. A close look at artistic features of the stories of Munro and Chekhov shows that they were not only great masters but also the innovators in this field. WORKS CITED Basu, Sankar. Chekhov And Tagore. New Delhi: Sterling, 1985. Chekhov, A. P. Complete Collected Works. Vol. 14 (tr. S. B.) Moscow, 1949. Print Chudakov, A. P. Poetics of Chekhov. Moscow, 1971. (tr. S. B.) Print Gibson, Graeme. Eleven Canadian Novelists. Toronto: House of Anansi Press, 1973. Print Mc Culloch, Jeanne. etal. Alice Munro The Art of Fiction No. 137 The Paris Review. Munro, Alice. Something I Have Been Meaning to Tell You. London: Vintage, 1974. Print. Ramaswamy, S. â€Å"The Art of Alice Munro†. The Literary Criterion. Vol. XLIV. No. 2, 2009 Tager, E. B. Russian Literature at the end of 19th century, and the Beginning of the 20th century, Vol. I Moscow, 1968. (tr. S. B.) Electronic Material: 1. The New Review. www.laurahird.com 2. Relatable short stories by Alice Munro Susanmarlow. Dec 2011